Ancient Greece Art Architecture Ancient Greece Writing System

Era of architecture

Ancient Greek compages

Top: The Parthenon (460-406 BC); Centre: The Erechtheion (421-406 BC); Lesser: Analogy of Doric (left three), Ionic (middle three) and Corinthian (correct two) columns
Years agile	c. 900 BC-1st century Advertizing

Ancient Greek compages came from the Greek-speaking people (Hellenic people) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC.^[one]

Aboriginal Greek compages is best known from its temples, many of which are establish throughout the region, with the Parthenon regarded, now as in ancient times, as the prime instance.^[two] Most remains are very incomplete ruins, simply a number survive substantially intact, by and large outside modern Hellenic republic. The second important type of building that survives all over the Hellenic world is the open-air theatre, with the earliest dating from effectually 525–480 BC. Other architectural forms that are nonetheless in bear witness are the processional gateway (propylon), the public square (agora) surrounded by storied colonnade (stoa), the town council edifice (bouleuterion), the public monument, the awe-inspiring tomb (mausoleum) and the stadium.

Aboriginal Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalised characteristics, both of structure and decoration. This is peculiarly and then in the case of temples where each building appears to accept been conceived as a sculptural entity inside the landscape, virtually often raised on high ground and so that the elegance of its proportions and the furnishings of light on its surfaces might be viewed from all angles.^[three] Nikolaus Pevsner refers to "the plastic shape of the [Greek] temple [...] placed earlier us with a physical presence more than intense, more alive than that of any afterwards edifice".^[four]

The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in detail the division of architectural style into iii defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, was to have a profound outcome on Western architecture of later periods. The architecture of aboriginal Rome grew out of that of Greece and maintained its influence in Italy unbroken until the nowadays day. From the Renaissance, revivals of Classicism have kept alive not just the precise forms and ordered details of Greek architecture, but also its concept of architectural beauty based on balance and proportion. The successive styles of Neoclassical compages and Greek Revival compages followed and adjusted ancient Greek styles closely.

Influences [edit]

Geography [edit]

The mainland and islands of Hellenic republic are very rocky, with deeply indented coastline, and rugged mountain ranges with few substantial forests. The about freely available building material is stone. Limestone was readily available and easily worked.^[5] There is an abundance of high quality white marble both on the mainland and islands, especially Paros and Naxos. This finely grained material was a major contributing cistron to precision of item, both architectural and sculptural, that adorned aboriginal Greek architecture.^{[half dozen]} Deposits of loftier-quality potter's dirt were found throughout Greece and the Islands, with major deposits near Athens. It was used not just for pottery vessels but also roof tiles and architectural decoration.^[seven]

The climate of Greece is maritime, with both the coldness of winter and the heat of summer tempered by ocean breezes. This led to a lifestyle where many activities took place outdoors. Hence temples were placed on hilltops, their exteriors designed every bit a visual focus of gatherings and processions, while theatres were often an enhancement of a naturally occurring sloping site where people could sit down, rather than a containing structure. Colonnades encircling buildings, or surrounding courtyards provided shelter from the lord's day and from sudden winter storms.^[6]

The light of Greece may be another important factor in the development of the particular grapheme of aboriginal Greek architecture. The lite is often extremely bright, with both the sky and the sea vividly blue. The clear light and sharp shadows requite a precision to the details of the landscape, pale rocky outcrops and seashore. This clarity is alternated with periods of haze that varies in colour to the light on information technology. In this characteristic surroundings, the ancient Greek architects constructed buildings that were marked past the precision of particular.^[6] The gleaming marble surfaces were shine, curved, fluted, or ornately sculpted to reflect the sunday, bandage graded shadows and change in color with the ever-changing light of day.

The rugged indented coastline at Rhamnous, Attica

The Theatre and Temple of Apollo in mountainous country at Delphi

The Acropolis, Athens, is high above the city on a natural prominence.

History [edit]

Historians separate ancient Greek civilization into two eras, the Hellenic period (from around 900 BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC), and the Hellenistic period (323 BC to 30 Advert).^[eight] During the before Hellenic period, substantial works of architecture began to announced around 600 BC. During the later (Hellenistic) menstruum, Greek civilisation spread equally a outcome of Alexander'south conquest of other lands, and afterwards as a issue of the rise of the Roman Empire, which adopted much of Greek civilization.^{[one] [9]}

Earlier the Hellenic era, 2 major cultures had dominated the region: the Minoan (c. 2800–1100 BC), and the Mycenaean (c. 1500–1100 BC). Minoan is the name given past modernistic historians to the civilisation of the people of aboriginal Crete, known for its elaborate and richly busy palaces, and for its pottery, the most famous of which painted with floral and motifs of body of water life. The Mycenaean civilisation, which flourished on the Peloponnesus, was quite different in character. Its people built citadels, fortifications and tombs rather than palaces, and decorated their pottery with bands of marching soldiers rather than octopus and seaweed. Both these civilizations came to an end around 1100 BC, that of Crete perchance considering of volcanic devastation, and that of Mycenae because of an invasion by the Dorian people who lived on the Greek mainland.^[x] Following these events, in that location was a period from which simply a village level of civilization seems to take existed. This menstruation is thus often referred to equally the Greek Nighttime Age.

Art [edit]

Blackness figure Amphora, Atalante painter (500–490 BC), shows proportion and style that are hallmarks of ancient Greek fine art

The Kritios Boy, (c.480 BC), typifies the tradition of costless-standing figures

The fine art history of the Hellenic era is generally subdivided into iv periods: the Protogeometric (1100–900 BC), the Geometric (900–700 BC), the Archaic (700–500 BC) and the Classical (500–323 BC)^[11] with sculpture being further divided into Severe Classical, High Classical and Late Classical.^[1] The first signs of the particular artistic grapheme that defines aboriginal Greek compages are to exist seen in the pottery of the Dorian Greeks from the 10th century BC. Already at this period information technology is created with a sense of proportion, symmetry and balance not apparent in similar pottery from Crete and Mycenae. The ornamentation is precisely geometric, and ordered neatly into zones on defined areas of each vessel. These qualities were to manifest themselves not only through a millennium of Greek pottery making, but too in the compages that was to emerge in the 6th century.^[12] The major development that occurred was in the growing utilise of the homo figure as the major decorative motif, and the increasing surety with which humanity, its mythology, activities and passions were depicted.^[1]

The development in the delineation of the human form in pottery was accompanied by a similar development in sculpture. The tiny stylised bronzes of the Geometric period gave way to life-sized highly formalised monolithic representation in the Archaic period. The Classical menses was marked by a rapid development towards idealised just increasingly lifelike depictions of gods in human being class.^[13] This evolution had a directly effect on the sculptural decoration of temples, as many of the greatest extant works of aboriginal Greek sculpture one time adorned temples,^[14] and many of the largest recorded statues of the age, such every bit the lost chryselephantine statues of Zeus at the Temple of Zeus at Olympia and Athena at the Parthenon, Athens, both over 40 feet high, were once housed in them.^[15]

Organized religion and philosophy [edit]

Above: Modern model of ancient Olympia with the Temple of Zeus at the centre

Right: Recreation of the colossal statue of Athena, once housed in the Parthenon, with sculptor Alan LeQuire

The religion of ancient Greece was a course of nature worship that grew out of the beliefs of before cultures. Nonetheless, unlike before cultures, the man was no longer perceived as being threatened by nature, just as its sublime product.^[9] The natural elements were personified as gods of the consummate human being form, and very human behaviour.^{[half dozen]}

The home of the gods was thought to be Olympus, the highest mountain in Hellenic republic. The most important deities were: Zeus, the supreme god and ruler of the sky; Hera, his wife and goddess of spousal relationship; Athena, goddess of wisdom; Poseidon, the god of the sea; Demeter, goddess of the harvest; Apollo, the god of the sun, law, healing, plague, reason, music and poesy; Artemis, goddess of the moon, the hunt and the wilderness; Aphrodite, goddess of honey; Ares, God of war; Hermes, the god of commerce and travellers, Hephaestus, the god of fire and metalwork, and Dionysus, the god of wine and fruit-bearing plants.^[6] Worship, like many other activities, was done in the customs, in the open. However, by 600 BC, the gods were oftentimes represented past large statues and it was necessary to provide a building in which each of these could exist housed. This led to the development of temples.^[xvi]

The aboriginal Greeks perceived order in the universe, and in turn, applied social club and reason to their creations. Their humanist philosophy put mankind at the centre of things and promoted well-ordered societies and the development of democracy.^[ix] At the aforementioned time, the respect for human intellect demanded a reason, and promoted a passion for enquiry, logic, challenge, and trouble-solving. The architecture of the ancient Greeks, and in particular, temple architecture, responds to these challenges with a passion for beauty, and for lodge and symmetry which is the product of a continual search for perfection, rather than a simple awarding of a gear up of working rules.

Architectural character [edit]

Early evolution [edit]

There is a clear division betwixt the architecture of the preceding Mycenaean and Minoan cultures and that of the ancient Greeks, with much of the techniques and an understanding of their manner being lost when these civilisations fell.^[5]

Mycenaean architecture is marked by massive fortifications, typically surrounding a citadel with a majestic palace, much smaller than the rambling Minoan "palaces", and relatively few other buildings. The megaron, a rectangular hall with a hearth in the middle, was the largest room in the palaces, and as well larger houses. Sun-dried brick above rubble bases were the usual materials, with wooden columns and roof-beams. Rows of ashlar rock orthostats lined the base of operations of walls in some prominent locations.^[17]

The Minoan architecture of Crete was of the trabeated class similar that of ancient Greece. It employed wooden columns with capitals, simply the wooden columns were of a very different grade to Doric columns, beingness narrow at the base and splaying upward.^[10] The earliest forms of columns in Greece seem to have developed independently. Equally with Minoan architecture, ancient Greek domestic architecture centred on open up spaces or courtyards surrounded by colonnades. This grade was adapted to the construction of hypostyle halls within the larger temples. The evolution that occurred in architecture was towards the public building, get-go and foremost the temple, rather than towards thousand domestic compages such as had evolved in Crete,^[3] if the Cretan "palaces" were indeed domestic, which remains very uncertain.

Some Mycenaean tombs are marked past circular structures and tapered domes with flat-bedded, cantilevered courses.^[x] This architectural grade did non carry over into the architecture of ancient Greece, but reappeared about 400 BC in the interior of big monumental tombs such every bit the Lion Tomb at Knidos (c. 350 BC).

Types of buildings [edit]

Domestic buildings [edit]

The Greek word for the family or household, oikos, is also the name for the house. Houses followed several different types. It is probable that many of the primeval houses were simple structures of ii rooms, with an open porch or pronaos, to a higher place which rose a depression pitched gable or pediment.^[8] This grade is idea to have contributed to temple architecture.

Plan of the Business firm of Colline, 2nd century BC

The House of Masks, Delos, 3rd century BC

The House of Masks

The construction of many houses employed walls of sun-stale clay bricks or wooden framework filled with fibrous textile such equally straw or seaweed covered with clay or plaster, on a base of stone which protected the more vulnerable elements from clammy.^[v] The roofs were probably of thatch with eaves which overhung the permeable walls. Many larger houses, such as those at Delos, were built of stone and plastered. The roofing material for the substantial house was tile. Houses of the wealthy had mosaic floors and demonstrated the Classical style.

Many houses centred on a wide passage or "pasta" which ran the length of the business firm and opened at one side onto a small courtyard which admitted calorie-free and air. Larger houses had a fully adult peristyle (courtyard) at the centre, with the rooms arranged effectually it. Some houses had an upper flooring which appears to have been reserved for the apply of the women of the family unit.^[18]

City houses were built with adjoining walls and were divided into pocket-size blocks past narrow streets. Shops were sometimes located in the rooms towards the street. City houses were inward-facing, with major openings looking onto the central courtyard, rather than the street.^[8]

Public buildings [edit]

The rectangular temple is the most mutual and all-time-known course of Greek public compages. This rectilinear structure borrows from the Tardily Helladic, Mycenaean megaron, which independent a fundamental throne room, vestibule, and porch.^[19] The temple did non serve the aforementioned function as a modern church, since the chantry stood under the open heaven in the temenos or sacred precinct, ofttimes direct before the temple. Temples served as the location of a cult image and as a storage place or strong room for the treasury associated with the cult of the god in question, and as a place for devotees of the god to leave their votive offerings, such as statues, helmets and weapons. Some Greek temples announced to have been oriented astronomically.^[twenty] The temple was mostly part of a religious precinct known as the acropolis. According to Aristotle, "the site should be a spot seen far and wide, which gives good elevation to virtue and towers over the neighbourhood".^[3] Pocket-size circular temples, tholoi were also constructed, as well as small temple-like buildings that served equally treasuries for specific groups of donors.^[21]

Porta Rosa, a street (tertiary century BC) Velia, Italian republic

During the late fifth and 4th centuries BC, town planning became an important consideration of Greek builders, with towns such as Paestum and Priene beingness laid out with a regular grid of paved streets and an agora or cardinal market identify surrounded by a pillar or stoa. The completely restored Stoa of Attalos can be seen in Athens. Towns were too equipped with a public fountain where water could exist collected for household use. The evolution of regular town plans is associated with Hippodamus of Miletus, a pupil of Pythagoras.^{[22] [23] [24]}

Public buildings became "dignified and gracious structures", and were sited so that they related to each other architecturally.^[23] The propylon or porch, formed the entrance to temple sanctuaries and other pregnant sites with the best-surviving instance being the Propylaea on the Acropolis of Athens. The bouleuterion was a big public edifice with a hypostyle hall that served as a courtroom house and as a meeting place for the boondocks quango (boule). Remnants of bouleuterion survive at Athens, Olympia and Miletus, the latter having held up to 1,200 people.^[25]

Every Greek town had an open-air theatre. These were used for both public meetings also as dramatic performances. The theatre was usually set in a hillside exterior the boondocks, and had rows of tiered seating set in a semicircle around the fundamental performance area, the orchestra. Backside the orchestra was a low building called the skênê, which served as a shop-room, a dressing-room, and also as a backdrop to the action taking identify in the orchestra. A number of Greek theatres survive most intact, the all-time known being at Epidaurus by the architect Polykleitos the Younger.^[22]

Greek towns of substantial size also had a palaestra or a gymnasium, the social eye for male citizens which included spectator areas, baths, toilets and club rooms.^[25] Other buildings associated with sports include the hippodrome for equus caballus racing, of which only remnants have survived, and the stadium for foot racing, 600 anxiety in length, of which examples be at Olympia, Delphi, Epidaurus and Ephesus, while the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens, which seats 45,000 people, was restored in the 19th century and was used in the 1896, 1906 and 2004 Olympic Games.^{[25] [26]}

The Palaestra at Olympia, used for battle and wrestling

Pebble mosaic floor of a business firm at Olynthos, depicting Bellerophon

Construction [edit]

Mail and lintel [edit]

The architecture of aboriginal Greece is of a trabeated or "mail and lintel" course, i.e. it is composed of upright beams (posts) supporting horizontal beams (lintels). Although the existent buildings of the era are constructed in rock, it is clear that the origin of the style lies in uncomplicated wooden structures, with vertical posts supporting beams which carried a ridged roof. The posts and beams divided the walls into regular compartments which could be left every bit openings, or filled with dominicus dried bricks, lathes or straw and covered with clay daub or plaster. Alternately, the spaces might exist filled with rubble. It is likely that many early houses and temples were constructed with an open up porch or "pronaos" above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment.^[8]

The earliest temples, built to enshrine statues of deities, were probably of wooden structure, later replaced by the more durable stone temples many of which are nonetheless in show today. The signs of the original timber nature of the architecture were maintained in the stone buildings.^[27]

A few of these temples are very large, with several, such as the Temple of Zeus Olympus and the Olympians at Athens existence well over 300 feet in length, but most were less than half this size. It appears that some of the large temples began as wooden constructions in which the columns were replaced piecemeal as stone became available. This, at to the lowest degree was the interpretation of the historian Pausanias looking at the Temple of Hera at Olympia in the 2nd century Advertizing.^[three]

The stone columns are made of a serial of solid stone cylinders or "drums" that residual on each other without mortar, but were sometimes centred with a bronze pin. The columns are wider at the base than at the top, tapering with an outward curve known as entasis. Each column has a capital letter of two parts, the upper, on which rests the lintels, existence foursquare and called the abacus. The part of the capital that rises from the column itself is called the echinus. It differs co-ordinate to the order, existence plain in the Doric club, fluted in the Ionic and foliate in the Corinthian. Doric and usually Ionic capitals are cutting with vertical grooves known equally fluting. This fluting or grooving of the columns is a retentiveness of an element of the original wooden architecture.^[27]

Entablature and pediment [edit]

The columns of a temple support a structure that rises in two main stages, the entablature and the pediment.

The entablature is the major horizontal structural element supporting the roof and encircling the entire edifice. It is equanimous of three parts. Resting on the columns is the architrave made of a serial of rock "lintels" that spanned the infinite between the columns, and run across each other at a articulation directly above the centre of each column.

Above the architrave is a second horizontal stage called the frieze. The frieze is one of the major decorative elements of the edifice and carries a sculptured relief. In the case of Ionic and Corinthian architecture, the relief decoration runs in a continuous ring, but in the Doric order, information technology is divided into sections called metopes, which fill the spaces betwixt vertical rectangular blocks called triglyphs. The triglyphs are vertically grooved like the Doric columns, and retain the course of the wooden beams that would in one case have supported the roof.

The upper band of the entablature is called the cornice, which is more often than not ornately busy on its lower border. The cornice retains the shape of the beams that would once take supported the wooden roof at each end of the edifice. At the front and rear of each temple, the entablature supports a triangular structure called the pediment. The tympanum is the triangular infinite framed past the cornices and the location of the most pregnant sculptural ornamentation on the exterior of the edifice.

Masonry [edit]

Every temple rested on a masonry base called the crepidoma, generally of three steps, of which the upper one which carried the columns was the stylobate. Masonry walls were employed for temples from nigh 600 BC onwards. Masonry of all types was used for ancient Greek buildings, including rubble, but the finest ashlar masonry was unremarkably employed for temple walls, in regular courses and large sizes to minimise the joints.^[eight] The blocks were rough hewn and hauled from quarries to be cut and bedded very precisely, with mortar hardly ever beingness used. Blocks, particularly those of columns and parts of the building begetting loads were sometimes fixed in identify or reinforced with iron clamps, dowels and rods of wood, statuary or iron stock-still in atomic number 82 to minimise corrosion.^[v]

Openings [edit]

Door and window openings were spanned with a lintel, which in a stone edifice limited the possible width of the opening. The distance between columns was similarly afflicted by the nature of the lintel, columns on the outside of buildings and conveying stone lintels being closer together than those on the interior, which carried wooden lintels.^{[28] [29]} Door and window openings narrowed towards the summit.^[29] Temples were synthetic without windows, the light to the naos entering through the door. It has been suggested that some temples were lit from openings in the roof.^[28] A door of the Ionic Order at the Erechtheion (17 feet high and 7.five feet wide at the top) retains many of its features intact, including mouldings, and an entablature supported on console brackets. (Encounter Architectural Decoration, below) ^{[29] [30] [31]}

The Parthenon, shows the common structural features of Ancient Greek architecture: crepidoma, columns, entablature, pediment.

Erechtheion: masonry, door, stone lintels, coffered ceiling panels

At the Temple of Aphaia, the hypostyle columns ascent in ii tiers, to a height greater than the walls, to support a roof without struts.

Roof [edit]

The widest span of a temple roof was across the cella, or inner chamber. In a large building, this space contains columns to back up the roof, the architectural class existence known as hypostyle. It appears that, although the architecture of aboriginal Greece was initially of wooden construction, the early builders did not accept the concept of the diagonal truss equally a stabilising member. This is evidenced by the nature of temple construction in the sixth century BC, where the rows of columns supporting the roof the cella rising higher than the outer walls, unnecessary if roof trusses are employed equally an integral part of the wooden roof. The indication is that initially all the rafters were supported directly by the entablature, walls and hypostyle, rather than on a trussed wooden frame, which came into use in Greek architecture but in the 3rd century BC.^[8]

Aboriginal Greek buildings of timber, clay and plaster construction were probably roofed with thatch. With the rise of stone architecture came the appearance of fired ceramic roof tiles. These early roof tiles showed an South-shape, with the pan and embrace tile forming 1 slice. They were much larger than modern roof tiles, being upwards to 90 cm (35.43 in) long, lxx cm (27.56 in) wide, iii–iv cm (1.18–i.57 in) thick and weighing around 30 kg (66 lb) apiece.^[32] Just stone walls, which were replacing the earlier mudbrick and wood walls, were strong enough to support the weight of a tiled roof.^[33]

The earliest finds of roof tiles of the Archaic flow in Greece are documented from a very restricted area around Corinth, where fired tiles began to replace thatched roofs at the temples of Apollo and Poseidon between 700 and 650 BC.^[34] Spreading chop-chop, roof tiles were within fifty years in evidence for a large number of sites around the Eastern Mediterranean, including Mainland Greece, Western Asia Modest, Southern and Central Italian republic.^[34] Being more than expensive and labour-intensive to produce than thatch, their introduction has been explained by the fact that their fireproof quality would have given desired protection to the plush temples.^[34] As a side-result, information technology has been assumed that the new rock and tile construction likewise ushered in the end of overhanging eaves in Greek architecture, as they made the need for an extended roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls obsolete.^[33]

Vaults and arches were not mostly used, but begin to appear in tombs (in a "beehive" or cantilevered form such as used in Mycenaea) and occasionally, as an external characteristic, exedrae of voussoired structure from the 5th century BC. The dome and vault never became significant structural features, every bit they were to go in ancient Roman architecture.^[viii]

Temple plans [edit]

Plans of Ancient Greek Temples
Meridian: 1. distyle in antis, 2. amphidistyle in antis, three. tholos, 4. prostyle tetrastyle, 5. amphiprostyle tetrastyle,
Bottom: 6. dipteral octastyle, 7. peripteral hexastyle, 8. pseudoperipteral hexastyle, 9. pseudodipteral octastyle

Virtually aboriginal Greek temples were rectangular, and were approximately twice equally long as they were wide, with some notable exceptions such every bit the enormous Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens with a length of nigh 2½ times its width. A number of surviving temple-similar structures are circular, and are referred to every bit tholos.^[35] The smallest temples are less than 25 metres (approx. 75 anxiety) in length, or in the case of the round tholos, in diameter. The great majority of temples are between thirty–60 metres (approx. 100–200 feet) in length. A small group of Doric temples, including the Parthenon, are between 60–80 metres (approx. 200–260 anxiety) in length. The largest temples, mainly Ionic and Corinthian, only including the Doric Temple of the Olympian Zeus, Agrigento, were between 90–120 metres (approx. 300–390 feet) in length.

The temple rises from a stepped base or stylobate, which elevates the construction higher up the ground on which it stands. Early examples, such as the Temple of Zeus at Olympus, take two steps, only the majority, like the Parthenon, have three, with the infrequent example of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma having six.^[36] The cadre of the building is a masonry-built "naos" within which is a cella, a windowless room originally housing the statue of the god. The cella more often than not has a porch or "pronaos" earlier it, and perchance a second sleeping room or "antenaos" serving as a treasury or repository for trophies and gifts. The chambers were lit by a unmarried big doorway, fitted with a wrought atomic number 26 grill. Some rooms appear to have been illuminated past skylights.^[36]

On the stylobate, often completely surrounding the naos, stand rows of columns. Each temple is defined as beingness of a detail blazon, with 2 terms: i describing the number of columns beyond the entrance front, and the other defining their distribution.^[36]

Examples:

• Distyle in antis describes a small temple with two columns at the front, which are set between the projecting walls of the pronaos or porch, like the Temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus. (see left, figure 1.) ^[35]
• Amphiprostyle tetrastyle describes a small temple that has columns at both ends which stand clear of the naos. Tetrastyle indicates that the columns are four in number, like those of the Temple on the Ilissus in Athens. (figure four.) ^[35]
• Peripteral hexastyle describes a temple with a single row of peripheral columns around the naos, with six columns across the front, like the Theseion in Athens. (figure 7.) ^[35]
• Peripteral octastyle describes a temple with a single row of columns around the naos, (effigy 7.) with eight columns across the front end, like the Parthenon, Athens. (figs. half-dozen and ix.) ^[35]
• Dipteral decastyle describes the huge temple of Apollo at Didyma, with the naos surrounded past a double row of columns, (figure 6.) with ten columns across the entrance front end.^[35]
• The Temple of Zeus Olympius at Agrigentum, is termed Pseudo-periteral heptastyle, considering its encircling colonnade has pseudo columns that are attached to the walls of the naos. (effigy 8.) Heptastyle ways that it has vii columns across the entrance front.^[35]

Proportion and optical illusion [edit]

The ideal of proportion that was used by aboriginal Greek architects in designing temples was not a simple mathematical progression using a square module. The math involved a more circuitous geometrical progression, the and then-called golden mean. The ratio is similar to that of the growth patterns of many spiral forms that occur in nature such as rams' horns, nautilus shells, fern fronds, and vine tendrils and which were a source of decorative motifs employed by ancient Greek architects as particularly in show in the volutes of capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.^[37]

${\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\varphi }}=\varphi -one;\;\varphi ={\frac {ane+{\sqrt {five}}}{2}}\approx 1.618}$

The aboriginal Greek architects took a philosophic approach to the rules and proportions. The determining factor in the mathematics of whatever notable work of architecture was its ultimate appearance. The architects calculated for perspective, for the optical illusions that make edges of objects appear concave and for the fact that columns that are viewed against the sky look different from those adjacent that are viewed confronting a shadowed wall. Considering of these factors, the architects adjusted the plans then that the major lines of any meaning edifice are rarely straight.^[37] The most obvious adjustment is to the profile of columns, which narrow from base to top. All the same, the narrowing is not regular, but gently curved so that each columns appears to have a slight swelling, chosen entasis below the middle. The entasis is never sufficiently pronounced as to brand the swelling wider than the base; it is controlled by a slight reduction in the rate of decrease of diameter.^[8]

The main lines of the Parthenon are all curved.

A sectioned nautilus shell. These shells may have provided inspiration for voluted Ionic capitals.

The growth of the nautilus corresponds to the Golden Mean

The Parthenon, the Temple to the Goddess Athena on the Acropolis in Athens, is referred to by many as the pinnacle of ancient Greek architecture. Helen Gardner refers to its "unsurpassable excellence", to be surveyed, studied and emulated by architects of later ages. Yet, equally Gardner points out, there is hardly a direct line in the building.^[38] Banister Fletcher calculated that the stylobate curves upward so that its centres at either cease rise about 65 millimetres (2.6 inches) above the outer corners, and 110 mm (4.3 in) on the longer sides. A slightly greater adjustment has been made to the entablature. The columns at the ends of the building are not vertical just are inclined towards the centre, with those at the corners being out of plumb by about 65 mm (2.half dozen in).^[8] These outer columns are both slightly wider than their neighbours and are slightly closer than whatever of the others.^[39]

Way [edit]

above: Capital of the Ionic social club showing volutes and ornamented echinus

left: Architectural elements of the Doric order showing simple curved echinus of capital letter

above: Capital of the Corinthian Lodge showing foliate decoration and vertical volutes.

Orders [edit]

Ancient Greek architecture of the most formal type, for temples and other public buildings, is divided stylistically into 3 Classical orders, commencement described by the Roman architectural writer Vitruvius. These are: the Doric order, the Ionic order, and the Corinthian order, the names reflecting their regional origins within the Greek world. While the three orders are well-nigh easily recognizable past their capitals, they as well governed the course, proportions, details and relationships of the columns, entablature, pediment, and the stylobate.^[3] The unlike orders were applied to the whole range of buildings and monuments.

The Doric club developed on mainland Greece and spread to Magna Graecia (Italian republic). Information technology was firmly established and well-defined in its characteristics by the time of the building of the Temple of Hera at Olympia, c. 600 BC. The Ionic order co-existed with the Doric, beingness favoured by the Greek cities of Ionia, in Asia Small-scale and the Aegean Islands. It did not reach a clearly defined form until the mid fifth century BC.^[27] The early Ionic temples of Asia Modest were particularly ambitious in calibration, such as the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.^[12] The Corinthian society was a highly decorative variant not developed until the Hellenistic period and retaining many characteristics of the Ionic. It was popularised by the Romans.^[viii]

Doric lodge [edit]

The Doric order is recognised past its capital, of which the echinus is similar a circular cushion ascent from the tiptop of the cavalcade to the square abacus on which rest the lintels. The echinus appears flat and splayed in early examples, deeper and with greater curve in later, more refined examples, and smaller and direct-sided in Hellenistic examples.^[xl] A refinement of the Doric cavalcade is the entasis, a gentle convex swelling to the profile of the column, which prevents an optical illusion of concavity.^[40] This is more pronounced in before examples.

Doric columns are almost always cut with grooves, known equally "fluting", which run the length of the column and are usually 20 in number, although sometimes fewer. The flutes meet at sharp edges chosen arrises. At the superlative of the columns, slightly beneath the narrowest point, and crossing the terminating arrises, are iii horizontal grooves known as the hypotrachelion. Doric columns accept no bases, until a few examples in the Hellenistic period.^[40]

The columns of an early Doric temple such every bit the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse, Sicily, may have a summit to base diameter ratio of merely iv:1 and a column pinnacle to entablature ratio of two:1, with relatively crude details. A column height to bore of half dozen:1 became more usual, while the column acme to entablature ratio at the Parthenon is almost three:1. During the Hellenistic period, Doric conventions of solidity and masculinity dropped abroad, with the slender and unfluted columns reaching a meridian to diameter ratio of 7.5:1.^[40]

The tapered fluted columns, synthetic in drums, residue directly on the stylobate.

The Doric entablature is in three parts, the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. The architrave is equanimous of the stone lintels which span the infinite between the columns, with a joint occurring in a higher place the centre of each abacus. On this rests the frieze, 1 of the major areas of sculptural ornamentation. The frieze is divided into triglyphs and metopes, the triglyphs, as stated elsewhere in this commodity, are a reminder of the timber history of the architectural manner. Each triglyph has three vertical grooves, similar to the columnar fluting, and beneath them, seemingly connected, are guttae, small strips that announced to connect the triglyphs to the architrave below.^[40] A triglyph is located above the centre of each capital, and to a higher place the centre of each lintel. However, at the corners of the building, the triglyphs do not autumn over the centre the column. The aboriginal architects took a pragmatic approach to the apparent "rules", merely extending the width of the last 2 metopes at each end of the building.

The cornice is a narrow jutting band of circuitous molding, which overhangs and protects the ornamented frieze, similar the edge of an overhanging wooden-framed roof. It is decorated on the underside with projecting blocks, mutules, further suggesting the wooden nature of the prototype. At either finish of the building the pediment rises from the cornice, framed by moulding of like form.^[40]

The pediment is busy with figures that are in relief in the earlier examples, though virtually free-standing by the fourth dimension of the sculpture on the Parthenon. Early on architectural sculptors establish difficulty in creating satisfactory sculptural compositions in the tapering triangular infinite.^[41] By the Early Classical period, with the ornament of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (486–460 BC), the sculptors had solved the problem by having a continuing central figure framed past rearing centaurs and fighting men who are falling, kneeling and lying in attitudes that fit the size and angle of each office of the infinite.^[38] The famous sculptor Phidias fills the space at the Parthenon (448–432 BC) with a complex array of draped and undraped figures of deities, who appear in attitudes of sublime relaxation and elegance.

Ionic order [edit]

The Ionic order is recognized by its voluted capital, in which a curved echinus of like shape to that of the Doric club, but decorated with stylised ornament, is surmounted past a horizontal band that scrolls under to either side, forming spirals or volutes similar to those of the nautilus trounce or ram's horn. In program, the majuscule is rectangular. It is designed to be viewed frontally simply the capitals at the corners of buildings are modified with an additional whorl so as to appear regular on two adjoining faces. In the Hellenistic period, 4-fronted Ionic capitals became common.^[42]

Corner capital with a diagonal volute, showing also details of the fluting separated by fillets.

Frieze of stylised alternate palms and reeds, and a cornice busy with "egg and dart" moulding.

Similar the Doric guild, the Ionic order retains signs of having its origins in wooden compages. The horizontal spread of a flat timber plate across the top of a column is a common device in wooden construction, giving a thin upright a wider area on which to conduct the lintel, while at the same time reinforcing the load-begetting strength of the lintel itself. Likewise, the columns e'er have bases, a necessity in wooden architecture to spread the load and protect the base of operations of a insufficiently thin upright.^[42] The columns are fluted with narrow, shallow flutes that exercise not meet at a sharp edge but accept a apartment ring or fillet between them. The usual number of flutes is 20-four simply at that place may be as many as forty-four. The base has ii convex mouldings called torus, and from the late Hellenic menses stood on a square plinth similar to the abacus.^[42]

The architrave of the Ionic social club is sometimes undecorated, only more than often rises in iii outwardly-stepped bands like overlapping timber planks. The frieze, which runs in a continuous band, is separated from the other members past rows of small-scale projecting blocks. They are referred to every bit dentils, meaning "teeth", just their origin is clearly in narrow wooden slats which supported the roof of a timber structure.^[42] The Ionic club is birthday lighter in appearance than the Doric, with the columns, including base and capital letter, having a 9:one ratio with the diameter, while the whole entablature was also much narrower and less heavy than the Doric entablature. There was some variation in the distribution of decoration. Formalised bands of motifs such as alternate forms known as egg-and-dart were a feature of the Ionic entablatures, forth with the bands of dentils. The external frieze often contained a continuous band of figurative sculpture or decoration, but this was non e'er the case. Sometimes a decorative frieze occurred around the upper part of the naos rather than on the outside of the building. These Ionic-fashion friezes effectually the naos are sometimes found on Doric buildings, notably the Parthenon. Some temples, like the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, had friezes of figures around the lower drum of each column, separated from the fluted section by a assuming moulding.^[42]

Caryatids, draped female figures used as supporting members to carry the entablature, were a feature of the Ionic order, occurring at several buildings including the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi in 525 BC and at the Erechtheion, well-nigh 410 BC.^[43]

The tall capital letter combines both semi-naturalistic leaves and highly stylised tendrils forming volutes.

Corinthian guild [edit]

The Corinthian order does not accept its origin in wooden architecture. It grew directly out of the Ionic in the mid fifth century BC, and was initially of much the same style and proportion, but distinguished by its more ornate capitals.^[44] The capital was very much deeper than either the Doric or the Ionic capital, being shaped like a large krater, a bell-shaped mixing bowl, and existence ornamented with a double row of acanthus leaves in a higher place which rose voluted tendrils, supporting the corners of the abacus, which, no longer perfectly foursquare, splayed above them. According to Vitruvius, the uppercase was invented by a statuary founder, Callimachus of Corinth, who took his inspiration from a basket of offerings that had been placed on a grave, with a flat tile on top to protect the goods. The basket had been placed on the root of an acanthus plant which had grown upwardly around it.^[44] The ratio of the column height to diameter is generally x:1, with the upper-case letter taking upwards more than 1/x of the height. The ratio of capital height to diameter is more often than not almost 1.16:i.^[44]

The Corinthian lodge was initially used internally, as at the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae (c. 450–425 BC). In 334 BC, information technology appeared as an external characteristic on the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens, then on a huge scale at the Temple of Zeus Olympia in Athens (174 BC–132 AD).^[44] It was popularised past the Romans, who added a number of refinements and decorative details. During the Hellenistic period, Corinthian columns were sometimes built without fluting.^[44]

Decoration [edit]

Architectural decoration [edit]

This Archaic gorgon's caput antefix has been cast in a mould, fired and painted.

The lion's head gargoyle is fixed to a revetment on which elements of a formal frieze take been painted.

Early wooden structures, particularly temples, were ornamented and in part protected past fired and painted terracotta revetments in the form of rectangular panels, and ornamental discs. Many fragments of these accept outlived the buildings that they decorated and demonstrate a wealth of formal border designs of geometric scrolls, overlapping patterns and foliate motifs.^[45] With the introduction of stone-built temples, the revetments no longer served a protective purpose and sculptured decoration became more common.

The clay ornaments were limited to the roof of buildings, decorating the cornice, the corners and surmounting the pediment. At the corners of pediments they were called acroteria and along the sides of the building, antefixes. Early on decorative elements were more often than not semi-circular, simply after of roughly triangular shape with moulded ornament, often palmate.^{[45] [46]} Ionic cornices were often set up with a row of panthera leo'southward masks, with open mouths that ejected rainwater.^{[28] [46]} From the Late Classical period, acroteria were sometimes sculptured figures (see Architectural sculpture).^[47]

In the three orders of ancient Greek architecture, the sculptural decoration, be it a simple one-half round astragal, a frieze of stylised foliage or the ornate sculpture of the pediment, is all essential to the architecture of which information technology is a role. In the Doric order, at that place is no variation in its placement. Reliefs never decorate walls in an capricious style. The sculpture is always located in several predetermined areas, the metopes and the pediment.^[45] In later Ionic architecture, at that place is greater diversity in the types and numbers of mouldings and decorations, particularly around doorways, where voluted brackets sometimes occur supporting an ornamental cornice over a door, such every bit that at the Erechtheion.^{[28] [30] [45]} A much applied narrow moulding is called "bead and reel" and is symmetrical, stemming from turned wooden prototypes. Wider mouldings include i with tongue-like or pointed leaf shapes, which are grooved and sometimes turned upward at the tip, and "egg and dart" moulding which alternates ovoid shapes with narrow pointy ones.^{[28] [45] [48]}

Architectural sculpture [edit]

Architectural sculpture showed a development from early Archaic examples through Severe Classical, Loftier Classical, Belatedly Classical and Hellenistic.^[1] Remnants of Archaic architectural sculpture (700–500 BC) exist from the early 6th century BC with the earliest surviving pedimental sculptures existence fragments of a Gorgon flanked by heraldic panthers from the centre of the pediment of the Artemis Temple of Corfu.^[49] A metope from a temple known as "Temple C" at Selinus, Sicily, shows, in a amend preserved state, Perseus slaying the Gorgon Medusa.^[41] Both images parallel the stylised depiction of the Gorgons on the black figure name vase busy by the Nessos painter (c. 600 BC), with the face and shoulders turned frontally, and the legs in a running or kneeling position. At this engagement, images of terrifying monsters take predominance over the emphasis on the man figure that developed with Humanist philosophy.^[49]

Early pedimental sculptures, and those on smaller temples, were usually in relief, and the tardily complimentary-standing ones were often in terracotta, which has survived but in fragments. The sculptures were covered with a layer of stucco and painted or, if terracotta, painted with the more than restrained fired colours of Greek pottery.^[50]

The Severe Classical Fashion (500–450 BC) is represented by the pedimental sculptures of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (470–456 BC). The eastern pediment shows a moment of stillness and "impending drama" before the beginning of a chariot race, the figures of Zeus and the competitors beingness astringent and idealised representations of the homo grade.^[51] The western pediment has Apollo equally the central figure, "majestic" and "remote", presiding over a boxing of Lapiths and Centaurs, in strong dissimilarity to that of the eastern pediment for its depiction of violent action, and described past Donald E. Potent as the "nigh powerful piece of illustration" for a hundred years.^[51]

Classical figurative sculpture from the eastern pediment of the Parthenon, British Museum.

The reliefs and three-dimensional sculpture which adorned the frieze and pediments, respectively, of the Parthenon, are the lifelike products of the Loftier Classical mode (450–400 BC) and were created under the direction of the sculptor Phidias.^[52] The pedimental sculpture represents the Gods of Olympus, while the frieze shows the Panathenaic procession and ceremonial events that took identify every four years to honour the titular Goddess of Athens.^[52] The frieze and remaining figures of the eastern pediment evidence a profound understanding of the human being torso, and how information technology varies depending upon its position and the stresses that action and emotion place upon information technology. Benjamin Robert Haydon described the reclining figure of Dionysus as "the near heroic style of fine art, combined with all the essential item of actual life".^[53]

The names of many famous sculptors are known from the Belatedly Classical flow (400–323 BC), including Timotheos, Praxiteles, Leochares and Skopas, only their works are known mainly from Roman copies.^[1] Picayune architectural sculpture of the flow remains intact. The Temple of Asclepius at Epidauros had sculpture by Timotheos working with the architect Theodotos. Fragments of the eastern pediment survive, showing the Sack of Troy. The scene appears to accept filled the space with figures carefully arranged to fit the slope and shape available, as with before east pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympus. Only the figures are more violent in action, the fundamental infinite taken upwards, not with a commanding God, but with the dynamic effigy of Neoptolemos as he seizes the aged king Priam and stabs him. The remaining fragments give the impression of a whole range of human emotions, fearfulness, horror, cruelty and lust for conquest.^[47] The acroteria were sculptured by Timotheus, except for that at the middle of the east pediment which is the work of the builder. The palmate acroteria have been replaced here with small figures, the eastern pediment being surmounted past a winged Nike, poised against the current of air.^[47]

Hellenistic architectural sculpture (323–31 BC) was to become more flamboyant, both in the rendering of expression and movement, which is often emphasised past flowing draperies, the Nike Samothrace which decorated a monument in the shape of a ship being a well-known example. The Pergamon Chantry (c. 180–160 BC) has a frieze (120 metres long by ii.3 metres high) of figures in very loftier relief. The frieze represents the battle for supremacy of Gods and Titans, and employs many dramatic devices: frenzy, desolation and triumph, to convey the sense of conflict.^[54]

Archaic metope: Perseus and Medusa, Temple C at Selinunte.

Severe Classical metope: Labours of Hercules, Temple of Zeus, Olympus

High Classical frieze: Panathenaic Ritual, Parthenon, Athens

Hellenistic frieze: Battle of Gods and Titans, the Pergamon Altar.

Ionic brace from the Erechtheion

Come across also [edit]

• Ancient Greek art
• Ancient Roman architecture
• Byzantine architecture
• Classical architecture
• Greek civilization
• Greek technology
• List of ancient architectural records
• Listing of ancient Greek temples
• Modern Greek architecture
• Outline of classical architecture

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c d east f} Boardman et al. 1967.
2. ^ Lawrence 1957, pp. 83–84.
3. ^ ^{a b c d e} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 126–132.
4. ^ Pevsner 1943, p. nineteen.
5. ^ ^{a b c d} Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 10–14.
6. ^ ^{a b c d e} Fletcher 1996, pp. 89–91.
7. ^ Higgins & Higgins 1996, Chapter iii.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} Fletcher 1996, pp. 93–97.
9. ^ ^{a b c} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 110–114.
10. ^ ^{a b c} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 90–109.
11. ^ Fletcher 1996; Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004.
12. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, p. 35.
13. ^ Strong 1965, pp. 33–102.
14. ^ Strong 1965, pp. 39–twoscore, 62–66.
15. ^ Fletcher 1996, pp. 119–121.
16. ^ Strong 1965, pp. 35–36.
17. ^ Lawrence 1957, pp. 65–67.
18. ^ Fletcher 1996, pp. 151–153.
19. ^ Neer 2012.
20. ^ Penrose 1893, pp. 42–43.
21. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 49–fifty.
22. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, pp. 74–75.
23. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 97.
24. ^ Moffett, Fazio & Wodehouse 2003, pp. 62–64.
25. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher 1996, pp. 147–148.
26. ^ 2004 Summertime Olympics Official Study Archived 2008-08-19 at the Wayback Machine Volume 2. pp. 237, 242, 244.
27. ^ ^{a b c} Stiff 1965, pp. 38–forty.
28. ^ ^{a b c d e} Fletcher 1996, p. 107.
29. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher 1996, p. 155.
30. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 159.
31. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, p. 25.
32. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, p. 12; Rostoker & Gebhard 1981, p. 212.
33. ^ ^{a b} Goldberg 1983, pp. 305–309.
34. ^ ^{a b c} Wikander 1990, pp. 285–289.
35. ^ ^{a b c d e f grand} Fletcher 1996, pp. 107–109.
36. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher 1996.
37. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 126.
38. ^ ^{a b} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 138–148.
39. ^ Moffett, Fazio & Wodehouse 2003, pp. fifty–53.
40. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Fletcher 1996, pp. 108–112.
41. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, pp. 58–60.
42. ^ ^{a b c d e} Fletcher 1996, pp. 125–129.
43. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 45, 49.
44. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Fletcher 1996, pp. 137–139.
45. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 22–25.
46. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 163.
47. ^ ^{a b c} Boardman et al. 1967, p. 435.
48. ^ Fletcher 1996, p. 164.
49. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, pp. 39–40.
50. ^ Lawrence 1957, pp. 110–111.
51. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, pp. 61–62.
52. ^ ^{a b} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 143–148.
53. ^ Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, p. 145.
54. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 509–510.

Sources [edit]

• Boardman, John; Dorig, Jose; Fuchs, Werner; Hirmer, Max (1967). The Art and Architecture of Aboriginal Greece. London: Thames and Hudson.
• Fletcher, Banister (1996) [1896]. Cruickshank, Dan (ed.). Sir Banister's A History of Architecture (20th ed.). Oxford: Architectural Press. ISBN0750622679.
• Gardner, Helen; Kleiner, Fred South.; Mamiya, Christin J. (2004). Gardner's Art through the Ages (twelfth ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN0155050907.
• Goldberg, Marilyn Y. (July 1983). "Greek Temples and Chinese Roofs". American Journal of Archaeology. 87 (3): 305–310. doi:ten.2307/504798. JSTOR 504798.
• Higgins, Michael Denis; Higgins, Reynold (1996). A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean (PDF). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN0801433371.
• Lawrence, Arnold Walter (1957). Greek Compages (Penguin History of Fine art). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
• Moffett, Marian; Fazio, Michael W.; Wodehouse, Laurence (2003). A World History of Compages. London: Laurence Male monarch Publishing. ISBN1856693538.
• Neer, Richard T. (2012). Greek Art and Archaeology: A New History, c. 2500–c. 150 BCE. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson. ISBN9780500288771. OCLC 745332893.
• Sideris, Athanasios (2008). "Re-contextualized Antiquity: Interpretative VR Visualisation of Ancient Art and Compages". In Mikropoulos, T. A.; Papachristos, N. M. (eds.). Proceedings: International Symposium on "Information and Communication Technologies in Cultural Heritage" October 16–eighteen, 2008. Ioannina: The University of Ioannina. pp. 159–176. ISBN9789609869102.
• Stierlin, Henri (2004). Greece: From Mycenae to the Parthenon. Köln: Taschen.
• Stiff, Donald Eastward. (1965). The Classical World. London: Paul Hamlyn.
• Penrose, Francis (11 May 1893). "The Orientation of Geek Temples". Nature. 48 (1228): 42–43.
• Pevsner, Nikolaus (1943). An Outline of European Compages. London: John Murray.
• Rostoker, William; Gebhard, Elizabeth (Summer 1981). "The Reproduction of Rooftiles for the Primitive Temple of Poseidon at Isthmia, Greece". Periodical of Field Archaeology. viii (ii): 211–212.
• Wikander, Örjan (January–March 1990). "Archaic Roof Tiles the First Generations". Hesperia. 59 (i): 285–290. doi:10.2307/148143. JSTOR 148143.

External links [edit]

• Cartwright, Mark (vi January 2013). "Greek Architecture". World History Encyclopedia . Retrieved 8 May 2021.
• The Foundations of Classical Architecture Role Two: Greek Classicism – Gratis educational program by the ICAA (published August 29, 2018)

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